One of the most challenging groups of individuals to diagnose with LD are English Language Learners (ELLs). Linguistic, psychological, social, cultural, and educational factors make attempts to identify and assist these learners much more complex.

Factors to consider:

• Many countries do not recognize LD and many of the ones that do recognize LD do not provide specialized services or instruction.

• A student may show LD in a second language when they do not in their first. ometimes a LD does not manifest itself in the learner's first language "because of the systematic structure or transparent nature of his native language versus English." For example, a reading disability may be more pronounced in English than in Spanish, where the sound-symbol correspondence system is more predictable.

• Many individuals stop speaking their first language when they begin speaking English. When this happens, lack of further development in the first language should not be considered a language learning problem.

• The student with a disability may learn English at a much slower rate than a student without a disability.

• A student with a language disorder tends to exhibit the same kinds of problems in his/her native language.

IDENTIFYING LEARNING DISABILITIES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

Unfortunately, little information is available about how individuals from different cultures deal with or manage learning challenges and their outcomes. It is likely that ELLs are unaware of LD. Different learners are not given help in many other cultures; instead, they are humiliated and forced to leave school. Thus, ELLs may be very leery of any suggestion that they learn differently. More certainly, they will not understand the term "learning disabilities," which usually translates in an extremely negative way into other languages.

In assessing an ELL:

• Interview student. This can provide a variety of useful information, such as educational and language history, social background, strengths, and perception on the nature of the suspected problem.

• Collect information about the student's work. Portfolio assessment, where measurements of learner progress in reading and writing are considered along with writing samples, autobiographical information, and work on class assignments, can provide a broad picture of the student's performance. Keeping a student portfolio is helpful in documenting the persistence of problems as well as which teaching strategies have worked or not worked.

• Check with the Health and Wellness Center to determine if there are any visual or hearing concerns.

• Carefully review what you have learned and then look for factors that could be impeding the student's ability to satisfactorily progress in the classroom.

  • The student received limited or no education and/or has limited academic skills in his/her native language.

  • The interference of a student's native language, particularly if the learner is used to a non-Roman alphabet (e.g., speakers of Chinese, Arabic, Khmer, etc.).

  • Stresses or traumas that refugees and other immigrants have may have experienced causing difficulties in concentration and memory dysfunction.

  • Socio-cultural factors such as physical health, social identity, and even diet.

  • No prior instruction or insufficient instruction in previous ESL learning environments.

  • The lack of opportunity or confidence to practice outside the classroom.

NOTE: Staff should learn about the cultural environments of the students that are serving. A student's adherence to certain customs and cultures may be impeding his/her progress or the staff's ability to properly instruct and assist them.

If the above factors do not seem to be the primary cause of the student's failure to progress in the subject matter, then consider:

• Has the problem persisted over time?

• Has the problem resisted normal instruction?

• Does the student show a clear pattern of strengths and weaknesses in and outside of class?

• Does the problem interfere with learning or a life activity in some way to a significant degree?

If there is a yes answer to the majority of these questions, a request should be submitted to the disability coordinator requesting that the student either be assisted (if local or partner resources are available) in securing a diagnostic evaluation for a LD or provided with the appropriate referral information.

Click here for further information regarding learning/behavior characteristics shared by students with LD and ELLs. (pdf file, Click here to download Adobe Acrobat Reader)

NOTE: Standardized testing to identify LD in ELLs presents problems. Instruments designed to diagnose LD are usually normed on native English speakers, so the results cannot be reliably used with learners whose first language is not English. Second, since the concepts and language being tested may have no direct translation, the validity of tests translated into the native language is questionable. Third, most tests are primarily designed for and normed on younger students and may not be suitable for adult ELLs.

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR THE ELL

Appropriate instruction for the ELL requires the development of an individualized systematic course of action. Determining an appropriate course of instruction requires a careful evaluation of each student's background and educational history, paying particular attention to cultural issues, language barriers, and educational experiences that may be negatively impacting or impeding current performance.

Generally speaking, techniques and strategies known to be effective in working with English speakers with LD are generally effective with ELLs as long as techniques match the needs. These include presenting new material in a carefully measured way, allowing plenty of opportunity for review and reteaching, providing structure both for the individual student and classroom, and incorporating multi-sensory instruction.

Examples of instructional strategies for the ELL include:

• Be highly structured and predictable.

• Teach small amounts of material at one time in sequential steps.

• Include opportunities to use several senses and learning strategies.

• Determine and build on learners' strengths and prior knowledge.

• Simplify language but not content.

• Emphasize content words and make concepts accessible through the use of pictures, charts, maps, etc.

• Reinforce main ideas and concepts through rephrasing rather than through verbatim repetition.

• Provide a clean, uncluttered, quiet, and well-lit learning environment.

• Be aware that learners often can take in information, but may experience difficulty retrieving it and sorting it appropriately.

• Build on the experiences and language of learners. Invite them to discuss their experiences and provide activities that will allow them to generate language they have already developed (see "Language Experience Approach).

• Combine life-skill reading competencies (reading medicine labels, writing notes to the children's teachers, filling out forms) with phonics, word recognition, word order, spacing words in a sentence, reading words in context, and reading comprehension.

• Use cooperative learning activities that encourage interaction by providing learners with situations in which they must negotiate language with partners or group members to complete a task.

• Maintain high expectations of ELLs, be prepared for their success and progress and keep in mind that ELLs are generally not a remedial population.

• Use props and gestures whenever possible to add context to your language. These will not only help the ELL understand you; it will also help him/her to remember the words and their meanings.

• Label everything possible in the room in English and the ELL's native language, if possible. This will help the ELL feel at home in the classroom and will help the other students appreciate another language.

• Include the ELL in all classroom and school activities. The more the student feels a part of the class and school, the higher his/her motivation to learn English will be.

• Primary instructional techniques will involve the following: individualizing, adapting, modifying class work for the ELL.

• Assign a buddy to new ELLs.

Click here for tips for teachers of language-minority students.

The Language Experience Approach

The language experience approach (LEA) uses learner experiences as lesson content and can be used to introduce multiple activities that appeal to learners' diverse backgrounds and preferred learning styles.

Example LEA lesson:

• Step 1: Start with a class discussion of a shared experience (e.g., field trip, etc.).

• Step 2: Students volunteer sentences about the experience and the teacher writes the sentences on the chalkboard.

• Step 3: The teacher reads each sentence aloud, running his/her finger under words as each is pronounced, verifying that she has written what the student has said.

• Step 4: When the story is completed, the teacher reads it aloud.

• Step 5: Students are encouraged to join in a second and third reading of the story.

Other follow-up activities for this lesson:

• Students copy the story.

• Students underline all the parts they can read and/or circle specific words (e.g., words that begin with a designated sound, common sight words, etc.).

• The teacher erases some words, reads the story, and asks learners to supply the missing words (e.g., choral cloze).

• The teacher types the story, leaving out every fifth word. During the next class the teacher passes out the writing cloze and asks students to fill in the missing words.

• The teacher types the story scrambling the order of the sentence and provides a copy of it to the class. Each student cuts the story into strips so that there is one sentence on each strip of paper and rearranges them in the proper sequence.

Use of Assistive Technology

The use of computers has proven to be beneficial in assisting ELLs acquire a second language. Using and mastering assistive technology can build self-esteem in the student who is able to work more independently and receive immediate feedback.

The use of screen reading software can be particularly effective as they provide access to almost all written materials. Students can scan in materials or open up electronic documents or even browse the net and have the text read out loud to them. The student benefits from having access to materials he/she may not have the ability to read yet as well as the additional educational benefit of seeing the words highlighted on the screen while hearing them said out loud. More sophisticated models such as WYNN 4 and Kurzweil 3000 offer additional literacy study tools that would be helpful to the ELL. ReadPlease 2003 offers a simplified screen reading program that is currently free for download.